France's ambassador to Australia, Jean-Pierre Thebault, said on Wednesday that Australia acted with deceit when it abruptly cancelled a The military's non-tactical vehicle fleet alone is the second largest in the federal government next to the U. The Kremlin has made modernization of the military a top priority as relations with Western nations have sunk to post-Cold While it's impossible to predict every kind of danger that will be present on a future battlefield, enough is known to The responsibility for preventing future calamities will rest largely with ship commanders, officials said.
Video reports show two wounded; one with fragment wounds in the back, and one woman with a bandaged head. Infrastructure damage: Minor damage to buildings around the street, but major damage to canteen area. Remarks: The attack was made on the university, which is located in a district that also contains government buildings.
At the time of this attack, mortars were a new element in the conflict, and it has been difficult to establish which party was firing them. Range mortar fired from : Fired from three directions at the town of Sangin, but the exact firing points were not established. Casualties: Death toll of 26 people, and approximately 41 injured, including women and children.
The survivors had injuries to limbs and burns. Most of the dead and injured came from a wedding party that was being held in the village. Remarks: This is one of a series of attacks in Yemen in which mortar rounds were used against the civilian population with no military targets in the vicinity. Table of contents. Photo 1. Photo credit: Imgur Mortars are generally smoothbore, muzzle-loading, indirect fire guns.
Figure 1. Figure 2. Note pre-cut driving band to the rear of the body image credit: Mil-Spec Industries Corporation mm smoothbore mortars have maximum ranges of approximately 7, m to 9, m, when firing conventional HE mortar projectiles. Photo 2. Figure 3. Arrangement of a typical mortar projectile source: US Department of the Army, Figure 4. Table 1 —Case Studies for mm Mortars. Case Study No 2 Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, 28 August At approximately , 5 high explosive mortar projectiles of indeterminate calibre or calibres detonated in the same Markale marketplace as the attack.
Case Study No 3 Zawiya, Libya, 16 April At approximately , a single 81 mm high explosive mortar projectile struck the Zawiyat el-Mahjoub medical clinic. Case Study No 4 Damascus, Syria, 28 March At approximately , an unknown number of high explosive mortar projectiles struck the refectory of the College of Architecture at Damascus University.
Map of the area: See Figure 5. Figure 5. A map of Markale, Sarajevo source: Google Maps. Weapon system: mm mortar. Number of mortar projectiles fired: One. Casualties: 68 people killed, and approximately people injured Remarks: BBC reports that unusual about the attacks was that the market would have been considered a safe place from mortars as it was surrounded by high buildings.
Map of the area: See Figure 6 Figure 6. Number of mortar projectiles fired: Five. Photo 4. A picture of the Markale market, Sarajevo, immediately after the attack image credit: Blic. They assist the supported unit in gaining fire superiority on the objective so that the assaulting force can close to assault distance, and they protect the supported unit during reorganization. On-call targets are planned on likely assembly areas and routes for enemy counterattacks. Supporting fires prevent the enemy from reinforcing, supplying, or disengaging his forces.
Also, they quickly provide mutual fire support to lower, adjacent, and higher headquarters. Fires in support of defensive operations include long-range fires, close defensive fires, final protective fires, and fires within the battle area. Long-Range Fires. Long-range fires are designed to engage the enemy as early as possible to inflict casualties, to delay his advance, to harass him, to interdict him, and to disrupt his organization. They consist of the fires of the supporting weapons within the battle area capable of long-range fires.
The enemy is engaged by long-range weapons as soon as he comes within range. As a result, the volume of fire increases as the enemy continues to advance and comes within range of additional weapons. A counterpreparation designed to disrupt the enemy's attack preparations before the attack can be fired as part of long-range fires.
Close Defensive Fires. Close defensive fires are supporting fires employed to destroy the enemy attack formations before the assault. Final Protective Fires. FPF are fires planned to prohibit or break up the enemy assault on the forward defense area.
Only those weapons whose FPF are in front of the threatened unit fire their assigned fires; all other available weapons use observed fire to supplement or reinforce the FPF in the threatened area.
Direct-fire weapons engage targets in front of the threatened area to reinforce FPF or to engage other targets. Each artillery battery normally fires one FPF. The mortar platoon of the battalion may fire one or two FPF; however, the platoon's fires are more effective in one FPF than in two.
The brigade commander designates the general areas for available FPF or allocates them to the maneuver battalions. The maneuver battalion commander, in turn, designates general locations or allocates them to maneuver companies. Fires Within the Battle Area.
The precise location of an FPF is the responsibility of the company commander in whose sector it falls. The exact locations of FPF within each forward company are included in the fire plan and reported to battalion. Fires within the battle area are planned to limit penetrations and to support counterattacks. The FIST and fire support planners use fire support coordination measures to ensure that fires impacting in their zone will not jeopardize troop safety, interfere with other fire support means, or disrupt adjacent unit operations.
Boundaries determined by maneuver commanders establish the operational zone for a maneuver unit and the area in which the commander fires and maneuvers freely. A unit may fire and maneuver against clearly identified enemy targets near or over its boundary, as along as such action does not interfere with adjacent units. Coordination Measures. Coordination measures designate portions of the battlefield where actions may or may not be taken.
They facilitate operations by establishing rules and guidelines for selected areas for a given time. There are two categories: permissive and restrictive. Permissive measures are drawn in black on overlays and maps. They are titled and indicate the establishing headquarters and the effective date-time group.
Permissive measures allow fires into an area such as a free-fire area or across a line-for example, a coordinated fire line or FSCL-that need not be further coordinated as long as they remain within the zone of the established headquarters. The effects of any weapon system may not fall short of this line. Restrictive measures are drawn in red. Restrictive measures mean that fires into an area or across a line must be coordinated with the establishing headquarters on a case-by-case basis.
Examples of restrictive measures include a restrictive fire area, a no-fire area, a restrictive fire line, and an airspace coordination area. There are two exceptions: when establishing headquarters approves fires temporarily within a no-fire area on a mission basis; and when an enemy force within the no-fire area engages a friendly force, and the commander engages the enemy to defend his force.
It may be a formal measure but is usually informal. The company commander's fire planning begins with receipt or assumption of a mission and continues throughout the execution of the mission. During the process of evaluating, refining, revising, and deciding how to accomplish the mission, the commander constantly seeks the most efficient and effective application of all resources to produce maximum combat power. The FIST chief, as the commander's special staff officer for fire support, performs a critical role in this planning process.
He ensures that the commander has all required information on available fire support and recommends how best to apply it in concert with other resources. For best results, the commander should include the team in every step of his decision-making process.
The company commander gives guidance to the fire planning team in the form of a concept. This concept outlines the scheme of maneuver and the desire for fire support. Later, when the FIST chief submits the proposed consolidated target list and company fire plan, the company commander approves or changes it. The company commander supervises the preparation of the company fire plan and coordinates the fire planning activities.
The FIST chief develops the company fire plan and consolidates it with copies of the target lists prepared by the platoon FOs. This consolidated list is then submitted to the company commander for approval. The company fire planners inform the company commander of the fire support available. They also obtain the following information for or from the company commander:. Upon receipt of this information, the fire planners start planning fires to support the company. Through map inspection and terrain analysis, the target lists are prepared Table If time and facilities permit, an overlay, giving a graphic representation, may also be prepared.
The target list includes for each target the target number, map coordinates, description, and amplifying remarks if required. It does not include target altitudes, which are determined by the respective FDCs. Target information can be submitted by any means available, such as telephone or radio, directly to an FDC. The targets on the list are arranged by target number alphabetically and numerically.
Once the fire plan is approved, it is distributed to those who will need it to include FOs, rifle platoon leaders, FDC, company fire planners, and battalion S3. Fire planning at battalion level is initiated the same as in the company. The battalion fire planning team consists of the battalion commander, S3, battalion mortar platoon leader, and FSO.
The battalion mortar platoon must always be directly responsive to the desires of the battalion commander. The platoon leader takes a position that best assists the S3 in planning and obtaining fire support. The battalion commander and S3 present the commander's concept of the operation, which, as in the case of the company, includes the scheme of maneuver and the plan for fire support.
After the FSO has consolidated the target lists prepared by the company fire planners, the battalion commander approves the consolidated target list as part of the battalion fire support plan.
The written plan becomes an annex to the operation plan. Once duplications are deleted, all fire plans are updated by assigning target numbers or by consolidating targets. Then, the FSO submits all fire plans and target lists to the battalion S3 as the proposed battalion fire support plan.
The S3 ensures that the proposed fire support plan supports the scheme of maneuver. After the battalion commander approves the fire plan, the plan becomes an annex to the battalion operation plan. It is disseminated to all subordinate elements to include rifle companies and the battalion mortar platoon. The FIST chief, when planning fires or when deciding to engage a target, ensures that the fire conforms to the scheme of maneuver of the support unit. He must also be informed of the present enemy situation.
In target analysis and determining the method of attack, the FDC chief considers target description, registration data, size of attack area, and the maximum rate of fire. The method of attacking a target depends largely on its description, which includes the type, size, density, cover, mobility, and importance.
Those factors are weighed against the guidelines established by the commander. The FDC then decides the type of projectile, fuze, fuze setting, and ammunition to be used. Fortified targets must be destroyed by point-type fire using projectiles and fuzes appropriate for penetration. Mortar fire does not usually destroy armor, but it can harass and disrupt armor operations.
A target consisting of both men and materiel is normally attacked by area fire using air or impact bursts to neutralize the area. Flammable targets are engaged with HE projectiles to inflict fragmentation damage, and then with WP projectiles to ignite the material. The method of attacking a target is governed by the results desired: suppression, neutralization, or destruction.
Smoke is used to blind or confuse, but the effect lasts only as long as fires are continued. Ten percent or more casualties usually neutralize most units. The unit becomes effective again when casualties are replaced and equipment repaired. A unit with 30 percent or more casualties is usually rendered permanently ineffective, depending on the type and discipline of the force.
Direct hits are required on hard materiel targets. Firing corrections within the transfer limits should be maintained through registration, survey data, and current MET message. When those data are unavailable or inadequate, targets should be attacked with observed fire since unobserved fires may be ineffective. Surveillance should be obtained on all missions to determine the results of the FFE. If accurate, FFE without adjustments is highly effective against troops and mobile equipment because damage is inflicted before the target can take evasive action.
All destruction missions and missions fired at moving targets must be observed, and FFE should be adjusted on the target. The size of the attack area is determined by the size of the target, or by the size of the area in which the target is known or suspected to be located. That information is usually an estimate based on intelligence and experience in similar situations. The size of the attack area is limited when considering units to fire. Mortars are the best weapons for engaging targets in depth.
This is due to their versatility in making range changes and maintaining high rates of fire. All mortars can fire traversing fires with only minor manipulations.
The greatest effect is achieved when surprise fire is delivered with maximum intensity. Intensity is best attained by massing the fires of several organic battalion units using TOT procedures. The intensity of fires available is limited by each unit's maximum rate of fire Table and ammunition supply. Maximum rates cannot be exceeded without danger of damaging the tube.
To maintain those rates either to neutralize a target or to attack a series of targets , mortars must be rested or cooled from previous firing. If not, the heat can cause ignition of the increment or charges on a round before it reaches the bottom of the barrel. The lowest charge possible should be used during prolonged firing, since heating is more pronounced with higher charges. The amount of ammunition available is an important consideration in the attack of targets.
The CSR should not be exceeded except by authority of higher headquarters. When the CSR is low, missions should be limited to those that contribute the most to the mission of the supported units. When the CSR is high, missions fired may include targets that affect planning or future operations and targets that require massing of fires without adjustment.
The selection of a charge with which to engage a target depends on the elevation required. The range and terrain dictate the elevation to be used. The mm and mm Roll Controlled Guided Mortar RCGM have a circular error probable CEP- the radius of a circle within which half of all the weapons fired are expected to fall or explode of less than 10 metres.
But these are not the mortars of the majority of weapons arsenals. And accuracy means very little in terms of preventing civilian harm if such a weapon is used a populated area. Mortar accuracy depends on how the systems are used, by whom, their maintenance, and weather conditions. Calculations on the accuracy of a mortar assume that the mortar is correctly aligned. In the theatre of combat — where mortars are frequently deployed by poorly trained, non-state actors — there is no such guarantee.
Thus, weapon specifications and real-world deployment are two different things. Conventional mortars with the exception of guided mortar systems typically require two or more rounds to be fired in order to stabilize the firing platform and make corrections for weather effects etc.
Thus, while the first shot of a mortar, especially at maximum range, could be characterised as highly inaccurate, sustained fire accuracy may improve over multiple shots or salvos. It boasts a CEP of 10m, though 4m is the average. The question of the accuracy or inaccuracy of mortars has had serious legal implications as to whether civilians and civilian infrastructure is directly targeted or the unintended victims of an indiscriminate attack.
As noted, the precision of indirect-fire weapons is generally expressed using CEP. So, if a mortar system had a CEP of m, this would mean that, if eight mortar rounds were launched at a target in the middle of a circle measuring m, only four would land inside. In this hypothetical example, the other four outliers could land immediately outside that distance or far away.
Despite technological advances that have improved the precision of the most expensive and capable models, most conventional, unguided mortar systems have relatively high CEPs for such a short firing range. High precision is not always the intended effect of a mortar. Optimal precision see below results in a natural dispersion so that not all munitions strike the centre of the desired target.
Who are the biggest manufacturers of mortars? Mortars are extremely widely used and produced. According to the Small Arms Survey , nearly 50 countries have manufactured one or more types of mortars — with 30 continuing to do so as of — making it the most widely produced light weapon.
Mortars are inexpensive to manufacture and simple to operate, rugged, portable, light, inexpensive and versatile. Given the low cost, availability and ease of operation of mortars, they have found favour among non-state armed groups. Different actors employ different mortar calibres. Mortars of a mm calibre and less are largely regarded as obsolete by state armed forces.
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